Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 6

Rhetorical Analysis - Essay Example Rhetoric Analysis of Martin Luther King’s Speech ‘I have a Dream’ The dramatistic pentad was developed by Kenneth Burke and forms the foundation of dramatism and rhetoric analysis. The pentad requires one to use a metaliguistic approach in analyzing stories in order to carefully investigate the uses and roles of rhetoric elements (Burgchardt, 2010). The five rhetoric elements of act, scene, agent, agency and purpose are common to all narratives and are what forms the dramatistic pentad. Using the pentad, one can evaluate the emphasis that is given by the story teller on each of the five elements and get to understand the motive and the behavior of the characters in the story. One can also get the character’s worldview by analyzing the issues they stress with regard to the five elements of rhetoric. In applying the pentad to analyze King’s speech, one can be able to determine that his world view is that of freedom and equality of all people regardless of their racial backgrounds (Burgchardt, 2010). The speech was issued as the centre of a civil rights movement march to Washington for freedom and jobs. Dr. King had been an ardent supporter of the civil rights movement in America and he used this speech to give the African Americans and other minority racial groups in America hope that they would no longer be discriminated against in the future. The speech was issued on August 28th, 1963 at the Lincoln memorial. The speech can be analyzed using the five elements of the pentad as shown below (Burgchardt, 2010). Act Several civil right movements had organized for a march of freedom in support of the bill that was due for discussion in congress seeking to treat African Americans and other minority races as equal members of the American society. The peaceful demonstration was attended by about 300000 people with African Americans estimated to be about 75-80% of those in attendance (Burgchardt, 2010). There were fascinating speeches fr om various leaders of the civil rights movement to address the mass but it was Martin Luther’s speech, â€Å"I have a Dream† that had a big impact. The other speeches addressed several issues of the civil rights movement at the time but Dr. King’s speech came out as more appealing to the people as it dealt with issues of freedom and equality. The other people who gave their speeches include Wilkins, John Lewis, and Walter Reuther, all of whom were renowned civil rights activists (Burgchardt, 2010). Dr. King’s speech did not only address the equality and freedom issues, but was also looked at as a symbol of optimism that things would get better in future for everybody with regard to equality. Scene The day was colored by powerful speeches from the leaders present, several people who had turned out to support the civil rights movement, among them popular celebrities and singers. This day marked a turning point in the American civil rights movement by bringi ng together all the Americans to support equality as opposed to divided responses that the calls for equality had received before. The protestors were cheered by several people who were watching from their windows and on television. The police department in Washington had anticipated for violent scenes to occur during the protest and they had prepared for a full police escort (Burgchardt, 2010). Instead, the people maintained peace throughout the marching process. Some media reports had indicated that the turnout would be very small but to the

The Incest of the prime minister in China Essay Example for Free

The Incest of the prime minister in China Essay Cecilia Leung, 30, the lawyer who has won the case about The Incest of the prime minister in China. She lives in Hong Kong with her husband, Jerry, who is a policeman and their four-year old son Brandon. I dont like mornings ; I think that I even hate them, so I need to wake up by Jerry every single morning otherwise, I will sleep late until 1 oclock. Once I felt that I got to wake up, I will go to the bathroom, turn on the television inside it and have a nice bath. I usually stay in the toilet until the morning news has finished. Then I will go to prepared breakfast, I think that it is very important to have a good breakfast as it is the start of the day so I always try to do my best. However, my best do not satisfied my family as most of the time; Jerry will just have toast or milk while Brandon will ask for McDonald if they know that I have cook breakfast for them. So most of the time, I will just stay away from the kitchen. And leave it for my housekeeper to do it. I usually wake Brandon up when breakfast is ready. I find that being a mum is not an easy job especially when Brandon is about two months old, he cry all day and night, I cant imagine what I would do if my mum did not help me look after Brandon for the first two year after he is born, as Jerry and me have never look after a baby before that. Luckily, as time go on, things are getting better. Now I and jerry both enjoy watching our baby son growing up. After breakfast, I usually sit down on the table, planning what to do for the whole day. After that, it is time for Jerry to go to work. Me and Brandon will walk to the car park with Jerry, walk back to our house when he has left. I then leave Brandon with my housekeeper, telling her what to do for the rest of the day while I am working and set off to work. My job is like a non- stop clock as I am busy all the time. I am working in a big office with 40 people in it. I enjoy being a lawyer as I think that it is a shame to see people going into jail if they havent do things wrong as it may simply be just a mistake and my job can help to sort these silly mistakes. Thats why I love this job as it is like a challenge every time when I get a new case and my aim for the challenge each time is to win. However, I find out things dont always happen as what I wish as I have seen so many client who havent did any thing wrong but still end up in the jail or even death which make me get really crossed but I always try to do my best to help them and find out about the truth. Rumour which is created by the magazine is something that really makes me get on my nerve. Since I got famous with the incest case, I start to appear in the magazine! I get really happy when I first knew that I was on a magazine article. As soon as I read it, I screamed! They said I refused to do certain jobs because they didnt pay me enough money. Although it is true that I refuse to do a few jobs but it is because those clients who I refused to work for have all commit that they had did something wrong but they just want to use money to make them escape from the punishment. I find that absolutely ridiculous so I refused the job. The imagination of the journalist is so good that they can create those funny stories. So how do I cope with my stress? When I feel really stressful from my work I play with Brandon when I get back home or do Tai Ji. Through the movement, it helps me to stretch out my stress. Before I do this, one thing I must do is to check if the balcony door is lock properly otherwise Brandon will come and join me and I will never be able to continue. Jerry is generally back to home by 8 then we will drive to my parent house to have supper or sometimes I will be tempted to cook for them but Jerry will usually stop disaster from happening. I enjoy being with my family as it makes me feel good when I am with them as I am a person who believe that family is the most important part for my life I start to put Brandon into bed at about 10 oclock; I always read stories to him to help him go to sleep. Then it is the time for me and Jerry, we sit in the balcony, admire the view from the window and talk about our day or sometimes we will watch television together. Before I go to sleep, I try to finish off doing my work then I have my eight hour sleep which is the best part of my day.

Islamic Ethics An Analysis

Islamic Ethics An Analysis This term paper was titled Ethics from Islamic Perspective which is including a morale and akhlaq. This paper was conducted because to give awareness about the important of ethics in Islamic perspective. Suitable with the papers aims whereas to give some of information and knowledge from an Islamic perspective about the ethics which is in moral and akhlaq aspect. The paper is sufficient to give the reader a feel for its potential to encourage further research in the area of resolving ethical issues, specifically for those who are calling for universal ethical theories to avoid moral imperialism. The Islamic perspective of the ethics concept should be refers based on the Holy Quran from the God and Ahadith of Prophet Muhammad. The ethics concept it must be generally and not too bias for others. The findings of this paper, it can be as a discussion, it is because the Islamic Work Ethics has economic as well as moral and akhlaq dimensions. Keyword: Islamic perspective, ethics, Islamic Work Ethics, moral and akhlaq INTRODUCTION This paper was discuss about the ethics concept from the Islamic perspective, so it should be construct an axiom system that faithfully reflects the Islamic view of ethics. The axiom system here is means by a proposition that either not proved or demonstrated but considered undeniable, or subject to a decision, so, the truth is assumed and became the starting point for concluded to the truth to another.This is an essential first step in determining the rules of economic behaviour in an Islamic society. The Islamic view of life processes is uniquenot only for its predominant emphasis on ethical norms, but also because of its being complete. However, to turn it into an operational tool of scientific analysis, an ethical philosophy must be reduced to a set of axioms, which is respect to Islamically valid rules of social and economic behaviour. 1.1 The Concept of Ethics, Moral and Akhlaq The concept of ethics, moral and akhlaq it can be in various point of view from many resources of our readings. Ethical behavior is an order based on a value system of a particular society. More ethics associated with science or philosophy, because it is the standard of good and bad it is human intellect. When compared with the morals, the ethics more theoretical while the moral is the practical. Moral more local or special nature and the ethical is more to general. There is many term that use by philosophers in order to give a meaning of akhlaq. But, we can conclude it, akhlaq is much related with the moral and ethics so much so have a opinion that stated akhlak is mean by moral and ethics. Put simply on that, Akhlaq is refers to the nature habits that owned on each individuals. It is includes behavior or nature owned by natural as feeling irritable, quick to laugh, irritability and so on. Also includes in this definition, a person belonging habits through training, education, discipline and fitness to be a flesh and blood character and good familiarity to someone. In addition, akhlaq is more refers to our natural habits. A while ago, in the western tradition, morals studies has long been exists and spread out before the birth of Islam and it known as ethics or moral knowledge. In aspect of etymology, the term of ethics and moral have a same meaning and also refers to the same field of study. In briefly, moral is derived from the Latin word, meanwhile the word ethics is derived from the Greek word. The both of term are related with the practical activities relating to behavior, customs, lifestyles, ways of thinking, freedom and the tendency of a person in engaging in an activity. On the other hand, the term of akhlaq was presented by the Muslim that based on the al-Quran and al-Sunah. On Islamic perspective, the ethics and moral was different from the point of conception, objectives and resources, it is called as Akhlaq. 1.2 Current related issues Ethics is usually defined by a written code of ethics. In the Middle East not many organizations and professions have written codes of ethics (Mudawanat Alsuluk) and violation is the norm rather than exception (AMAN, 2006). Behaviors that conform to those written codes of ethics are considered ethical and whatever violates the written standards is considered unethical. From that situation, it can be simply, people are not too concern about all this matter, when they talk about ethics, they usually do not remind about the moral and akhlaq. This is because, they are set their mind, the term of ethics just use in the business or information technology such as computer accessibility. As a Muslim, they should also think about that moral and akhlaq. In addition, the new code ethics was create, which is the Islamic Work Ethics (IWE). This philosophy was create to orientation that shapes and influences the involvement and participation of believers in the workplace. It implies that work is a virtue in light of a persons needs, and is a necessity for establishing equilibrium in ones individual and social life (Nasr, 1984). IWE views work as a means to further self-interest economically, socially and psychologically, to sustain social prestige, to advance societal welfare and reaffirm faith. The concept has its origin in the Quran and the sayings and practice of the Prophet Mohammed. METHODOLOGY In completing this term paper, the secondary literatures are used to enable in depth understanding of ethics from the Islamic perspective with the moral and akhlaq concept. The secondary resources which is from readings on a book and the web pages, so the major instrument that has been used is literature review. Based on the reading, this topic has many references in a Malay writing, but there is no problem on that, after read in Malay and understand the content, the term paper writing has been continued. By reviewing the literature, all the information will be paraphrased based on the understanding. The reference to literature review that has been used is article journal about the Islamic ethics that can be obtained from the online journal databases access. Another method applied for finishing this term paper is data collection from the web page and it is just for back up information if there any lack of data collection. Approach that had been used in completing this term paper is understands from the readings and reviewing from the materials obtained and understand it. DEFINITIONS AND CONCEPTS OF ETHICS FROM ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE: MORAL AND AKHLAQ There are various definitions of ethics, moral and akhlaq. The various definitions are produced from various reading materials, such as book and article journal, so there is many opinions from the philosophers. Ethich from Islamic perspective are more concern to the religion behavior, code and ethics. Islam is supposed to be a complete way of life. A Muslim is bound by Islamic rules and hence is obliged to follow the instructions as prescribed in the Quran and Hadiths. Islam is a religion based upon the surrender to God (Allah). The very name of the religion, al-Islam in Arabic, means submission and peace, for it is in submitting to Gods will that human beings gain peace in their lives in this world and in the hereafter. Islam is considered to be a comprehensive religion and its ethical system is considered to be one of the major ethical systems. Realize about the importance of establishing an ethical system in the all fields, especially at our present time which is witnessing an ever increasing ethical problems, several specialist organizations have prepared codes of ethics to be complied with by members of those organizations. By generally, in Islam, ethics have two dimensions; first ethics toward Allah, the creator. A Muslim has to believe in Allah and has to worship Him. The second is ethics toward others; a Muslim business person has to deal ethically with others by maintaining good treatment and good relationship. This paper is of vital importance because people do not know sometimes what is ethical unless they study ethics. Ethics provide an essential foundation for business transactions (Cherrington and Cherrington, 1995, p. 1). They are essential for organizational effectiveness and are necessary for interpersonal relations. 3.1 Definition and Concept of Ethics Ethics is defined as a branch of philosophy that deals withmoral behavior. Morality refers to whether something is right or wrong, good or bad. Although morality is a complex concept, it can be defined in terms of both means and ends. Means is the process which occurs, while Ends refers to the consequences (Cherrington and Cherrington, 1995, p. 2). Ethics may also be defined as: [. . .] a systematic inquiry into the beliefs we have and the management we make about what is morally right or wrong and morally good or evil. It is an inquiry that attempts to answer the following questions: What kinds of conduct are morally right or wrong? And what things are good and what things are evil? (Cherrington and Cherrington, 1995, p. 2) Ethics is also defined as the code of moral principles that sets standards of good or bad, or right or wrong behavior (Schemerhorn, 2008, p. 32). Ethical behavior is what is accepted as good and right as opposed to bad or wrong in the context of the governing moral code. Islamic ethics is defined as the code of moral principles that are prescribed by the Quran and Sunnah (Hadith or sayings of Prophet Mohammad). Islamic ethics is based on rational methods as well as revelation. Revelation provides the truth which rational methods lead to understanding and appreciation of truth. Hence, Islamic ethics is based on tawheed, or unity principle, which determines the unique relationship between God and man; man and man; and man and his environment (Alhabshi, 1993, p. 83). Within the Islamic culture, the term that is mostly associated with ethics is referred to in the Holy Quran as Khouloq (Beekun, 2004, p. 2). Allah in the Quran has described Prophet Mohammad as a Prophet of good ethics. 3.2 Definition and Concept of Moral According to Peter Baelz (1977), morals and ethics often have the same meaning. However, is very useful if we could distinguish between the both of them, even though we often failed to make such a difference. While the N. Capaldi, E. Kelly and L.E. Navia (1981) stated that. In form of etymology, the English words ethical and moral is exactly same. Because of that, the study of ethics and moral actually just one and it is a same. The moral issues are practical issues, but not all belong to the practical issues in the field of ethics. It is because, moral more specifically examine the good and bad, right wrong and how individual should act in a particular situation. Therefore, moral was refers to disciplines knowledge that investigate the various about the human behavioral. Such as the opinion that written by J.L. Mackie (1971): à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦moral and ethics can analyze the once action whether that is right or wrong; it is can provide a clear line of distinction about acts and of an internal disposition, whether good or bad; or at least, be able to develop a knowledge of ethics guidelines that can be adopted to make various moral of judgments. 3.2 Definition and Concept of Akhlaq According to Mohd. Nasir Omar, (2010) on his book, Akhlaq is refers to the nature, habits, customs, familiarity, values à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹and lifestyle of the individual or group of individuals. In fact, belief system or religion by a person also often included under the definition of akhlaq by many researchers. It is because of religion greatly influenced the thinking and lifestyle of the individual (Ibn Manzur t.t II: 1244-1248 and Jamil Saliba 1971, I: 49). While according to Ibn Miskawayh (1966), akhlaq is refers to the situation that forms in a human and it is function as a executive power that was directed that individuals by doing all his habits. Many philosopher was agreed with that statement that akhlaq related with the disposition that create in a person (al-nafs/soul) of a human. Spiritual dimension of the situation is very important because it is the cause of all acts done by humans. Therefore, akhlaq is does not refer to the act of good or bad done by a person, but to someone spiritual dimension pressing to do an act, whether good or bad. Akhlaq is located in the interior of humans soul and in the meanwhile, the act are refers to the exterior is made à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ ¹from morality. Hence, a good moral will of course realize that good deeds and vice versa. PRINCIPLES OF ISLAMIC BUSINESS ETHICS According to Hanafy and Salam (1995), classified ethical principles of Islam into six categories, which is: truthfulness, trust, sincerity, brotherhood, science and knowledge and justice. Principles of Islamic Business Ethics Justice Science and knowledge Brotherhood Sincerity Trust Truthfulness In order to get a pleasure from the Almighty, as a Muslim, it is should be followed this six principle of Islamic ethics by doing all the business or activities in their daily life. TRUTHFULNESS: Truthfulness is a basic ethical value of Islam and the meaning of Islam itself is, in a way, the other name of truth. There is no scope for cheating, telling lies, swearing too much, and providing false advertising in the Islamic framework of business. TRUST: Trust is another fundamental ethical principle of Islam and the essence of the trust is the sense of acountability, which is the sense of having to appear before Allah S.W.T and to account for ones action. All the activities were conducted well in no case harm or damage the society or the environment. SINCERITY: Islam attaches great importance to the sincerity of intentions and actions in every walk of life. For example such as ethical code results in more efficiency as well as a high rate of productivity. Sincerity also discourages manipulation or exploitation of others for personal reasons. BROTHERHOOD: Islam declares all human beings are brothers to each other wihout the distinctions of race, colour, tribe, caste and language of an individual or group. Everyone is entitled to an ethically right behavior irrespective of distinctions of caste, creed, race, or territory. SCIENCE AND KNOWLEDGE: Islam makes it obligatory for Muslims to seek knowledge and obtain excellence in performance. Research and development is highly encouraged in Islam. It such concern about science and knowledge in the Islamic code of ethics has been highly fruitful for Islamic civilisation in the past. JUSTICE: Justice is undoubtedly a prerequisite of business and trade as it encompasses the entire whole series of human life. The whole universe is based on the concept of justice and balance.justice here means that every one should be treated as he or she deserves, without any undue pressure or discrimination. CHALLENGES IN ENCOURAGING ISLAMIC ETHICAL BEHAVIORS AMONG INFORMATION / INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PERSONNEL Muslims unethical behavior is influenced by several factors, such as stage of formal development, personal values and personality, family influence, peer influenceand so on. The challenges in Encouraging Islamic Ethical Behaviors Among Information / Information Technology Personnel CHALLENGES EXPLANATION Stage of moral development The lunatic, the sleeper and the child before puberty not responsible for their behavior. Personal value and personality One who stresses honesty will behave differently from those who do not respect others rights. The locus of control also affects individual ethical behavior (Robbins and Coulter, 2005, p. 112). Family influence The home is the place to start being a good Muslim. Children are likely to be ethical if they see their parents and other members of the family consistently adhere to high standards. In Islam, it is easier for a parent to teach his kids what is right (halal ) and what is wrong (haram) than to teach them rules and principles of good conduct and behavior. Peer influence Children are influenced by actions of their peers with whom they interact. Islam urges people to be very selective of peers as they have very big influence on companions. This coincides with the Arabic proverb Birds of a feather flock together or A person is known by the company he keeps. Life influence Key events like taking part in Alhajj (pilgrimage to Mecca) for example has a positive impact on Individual behavior. As the Quran states: Whoever goes to Hajj comes back from his journey innocent and pure and white as of the day of birth. Situational challenges It is the situation that sometimes makes one behave unethically, as the only way out. For example, a secretary may lie when answering a phone as the only way to turn away a client. She may simply lie by saying that the manager is not in the office while he is in fact in. On many occasions, the researcher has observed many Muslim secretaries quit their jobs simply to avoid being forced to tell such lies. However, lying is acceptable in Islam under three conditions: first, in wars; second, to solve conflicts between people; third, husband lying to his wife or vice versa for the sake of getting closer to each other and saving the marriage, e.g. saying I love you while it is the opposite (Hadith), or you are the most beautiful woman in the world. All this is meant to strengthen the ties between couples. Societal challenges People try to conceal unethical behavior and always justify their actions as being ethical in order to please members of society. In Muslim cultures, society places a heavy pressure on individuals to practice wasta, so a manager may have to deviate from the rules and regulations of the business in order to please a cousin, a friend or a neighbor. On one hand, wasta is considered as ethical and legal, e.g. in solving conflicts, while on the other hand, it can be viewed as illegal and unacceptable when it is used to override established laws and traditions, e.g. in obtaining favors like jobs. In Muslim cultures, a business person is more concerned about what others might think of his decision than what he thinks himself. Table 1: The challenges in Encouraging Islamic Ethical Behaviors Among Information / Information Technology Personnel (Source: Abuznaid, 1990) GUIDELINES TO ADDRESS THE CHALLENGES IN ENCOURAGING ISLAMIC ETHICAL BEHAVIORS AMONG INFORMATION / INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY PERSONNEL In Islam, Allah emphasizes the following ethical guidelines as being outlined in the Holy Quran. These guidelines govern the Islamic code of ethics relating to a persons daily life and business dealings. Muslims are required at all times to behave islamically because Allah himself is watching their practices. In response to these challenges, several guidelines are proposed as follows: Be patient. Islamic business people should not get angry and should not be irritated (Holy Quran, XXV:63) and (Holy Quran, III:134). Be fair and just. A Muslim business person has to be fair and just in all his dealings. He has to be fair with his employees; he has to give fair wages and has to be fair and kind with animals when slaughtering them (Holy Quran, II:278-279). Be humble. Being humble is the opposite of being arrogant. Being humble is a great characteristic of Muslims. Business people should be humble and down to earth (Holy Quran, XXVI:215). Be complacent. Being complacent is another characteristic of a Muslim. Muslim business people should be satisfied with what Allah has allocated them. To Muslims complacency is not the enemy of progress as the West views it. Be generous. Being generous is the opposite of being stingy. Alkareem is in fact one of Allahs magnificent names meaning being generous. Alkaram (generosity) is another characteristic of the Muslim business people. They should be generous in giving money and goods to the needy. Islam urges people to give legal alms or obligatory charity (Az-Zakat). Az-Zakat is an ordinance prescribed by Islamic law. Social responsibility is another important principle in management practices. Sadaqat (donations), not obligatory, are very much urged in the Holy Quran (Holy Quran, LVI:77) and (Holy Quran, XLIV:17,26). Be dignified. A business person in Islam should not indulge in investments that are not Halal. Halal is the opposite of Haram. Halal is ethical while haram is unethical. Examples of haram earnings for a Muslim include trading in alcohol, Be trustful (Al Amaneh). Being trustful means giving rights to others. For example, if you borrow some money from someone, you are supposed to return it at the agreed time at no interest. A good loan with no interest is an example of Islamic financial dealings (Alkird Al hasan) (Holy Quran, XL32) and (Holy Quran, IV:58). Be friendly. Muslims should be friendly and united at all times. No discrimination exists among Muslims, regardless of nationality, gender or color. The only difference between Muslims should be on the basis of piety (Holy Quran, XLIX: 10, 13). Be equitable. Equity is the opposite of injustice. A Muslim manager should be equitable. In Islam people should be treated fairly and with equity. Do not be involved in fraud. A Muslim business person should treat others the same way he himself would like to be treated (Holy Quran, XVI: 90, IV: 58). Do not bribe. The practice of all kinds of bribes is forbidden in Islam (Holy Quran, II: 188). However, there should be differentiation between sadakat (donations), gifts, and bribes. Gifts are encouraged in Islam because they help gain friendship. The prophet encourages the use of gifts saying Give more gifts so you be better liked (Hadith). Bribes on the other hand are unethical. Bribes are used to influence decisions. There are two kinds of bribes: the lubrication bribe and the white mail bribe. The white mail bribe generally involves an elaborate system for concealing the use of large sums of corporate cash. This type of bribe is used to buy influence in high places (Abuznaid, 1990, p. 319). From these key guidelines principles of ethics, we can conclude that Islam is a religion of high-moral standards. Muslim business people are urged in Al Quran and Al Sunnah to follow certain principles and guidelines. (Source: Abuznaid, 2009) CONCLUSION As stated above, the main purpose of this term paper is to discuss the meaning of ethics from an Islamic perspective. The research has defined Islamic management ethics as those guidelines and principles that are prescribed by the Holy Quran and sunnah (hadith). The paper has give explanation on the major determinants of individual ethical behavior in Islam and pinpointed based on the moral and akhlaq. Besides that, the paper has outlined some of the ethical principles which is the principles of Islamic business ethics. This paper has also discussed the challenges in encouraging Islamic ethical behaviors among information / information technology personnel. It further helps non-Muslim people become more aware of management ethics in an Islamic environment by giving them a better understanding of the subject, thus making it easier for them to carry out all the activities in an Islamic culture. However, it must be stated that there is not one united form of applied Islamic teachings am ong different Muslim countries. It is widely known that Middle Eastern countries have become more active in the global market place by applied their ethics. Moreover, this paper has outlined major commonalities between Islam and other religions on the subject of ethics from the Islamic perspective. Although this paper has presented the concept of ethics from Islamic perspective, hope all the Muslim are together applied all the ethics that are based on the al-Quran and al-Sunah to be an excellent humans. Therefore, it is the duty of all researchers interested in this issue to develop this knowledge. May Allah gives guidance in this new endeavour. REFERENCES 8.1 Book Dr Muhammad Sharif Chaundry. (2006). Social and Moral Code of Islam. Batu Caves, Selangor: Masterpiece Publication Sdn. Bhd. Khaliq Ahmad. (2007). Management from Islamic Perspective: Principles and Practices. Kuala Lumpur: International Islamic University Malaysia Press. Mohd Nasir Omar. (2010). Falsafah Akhlak. Bangi, Selangor: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Syed Nawab Haider Naqvi. (1990). Etika dan Ekonomi: Satu Sintesis Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Berita Publishing Sdn. Bhd. 8.2 Article Journal Muhammad Arham. (2010). Islamic Perspective on Marketing. The Journal of Islamic Marketing, Vol. 1 Iss: 2 pp, 149-164. Salam Abdallah. (2010). Islamic Ethics: An Exposotion for Resolving ICT Ethical Dilemmas. The Journal of Information, Communication Ethics in Society, Vol. 8 Iss: 3 pp, 289-301. Samir Ahmad Abuznaid. (2009). Business Ethics in Islam: The Glaring Gap in Practice. The International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, Vol. 2 Iss: 4 pp, 278-288.

Toby Keith: Unleashed :: Music Essays

Toby Keith: Unleashed At this point in time, music is among the hardest businesses to achieve success in. The music industry and fans are looking for more than just talent and energy. They want someone who they can respect. Toby Keith fulfilled these expectations when he entered the music world. His huge success depended not only on his talent, but his boldness to speak his mind. Toby was born on July 8th, 1961 in Clinton, Oklahoma. Although most of his childhood and high school years were spent playing football, he was involved in the Easy Money Band with several of his friends. After singing with the group for awhile, Toby decided to become a solo performer, and went to Nashville where he landed his first contract with Mercury Records. He produced and wrote many hit singles, including â€Å"We Were in Love† and â€Å"Wish I Didn’t Know Now,† but sappy love songs did not satisfy his full artistic vision, nor the visions of his listeners. Mercury Records had turned down a number of songs he had written because they feared the songs were too controversial. Finally, he moved his contract to Dream Works Records, who released his single â€Å"How Do You Like Me Now,† released in 1999. The song was a smash hit, catapulting him into popularity. Toby wrote another song that not only boosted his career, but lowered some Americans’ respect for him. â€Å"Courtesy of the Red, White, and Blue† is a passionate ballad concerning the attacks on the World Trade Center, that some United States residents feel is too prideful. Despite the controversy caused by the new hit single, Toby Keith won the hearts of many Americans. He expressed their feelings about the attack of September 11th, 2001, in ways that they could not. However, the following lyrics created an uproar: â€Å"You’ll be sorry that you messed with the U S of A†¦ ‘Cuz we’ll put a boot in your ass, It’s the American way!† Peter Jennings refused for a long time to allow Toby to perform on his television show for the Fourth of July because of these lyrics.

Role of different Agency in my Socialization

Socialization is a term used to refer to the lifelong process of inheriting and disseminating norms, customs and ideologies, providing an individual with the skills and habits necessary for participating within his or her own society. Socialization is thus ‘the means by which social and cultural continuity are attained.’Socialization helps me learn to function successfully in my social worlds. How does the process of socialization occur? How do we learn to use the objects of our society’s material culture? How do we come to adopt the beliefs, values, and norms that represent its nonmaterial culture? This learning takes place through interaction with various agents of socialization, like peer groups and families, plus both formal and informal social institutions.In each stage of my life there are influences or agents of socialization who have an impact on my socialization and the messages of socialization being received. As I develop and advance in psychosocial dev elopment, the agents become stronger or weaker in their capacity for influence. Early in my development, the family is, of course, the strongest agent, but I advances to preschool age, programs or schools begin to exert influence. At school age, peers are active socialization agents. For the first eight years, family, school, community, and peers play a role in the following aspects of a child's socialization: The development of trustThe development of independence The tendency to take initiative The sense of competence and ambition Decisions about who one is Relationships with others Decisions about future generations Reflections on one's life Social groups often provide the first experiences of socialization. Families, and later peer groups, communicate expectations and reinforce norms. People first learn to use the tangible objects of material culture in these settings, as well as being introduced to the beliefs and values of society.Family: The family is the most important prima ry group in the society. It is  the simplest but most elementary form of the society. The meaning of the family can be explained better by the following definitions. M.F. Nimkoff says that â€Å"Family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without child, or of a man or women alone with children.† Burgess and Locke says that â€Å"Family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption constituting a single household interacting and intercommunicating with each other in their respective social roles of husband and wife, father and mother, son and daughter†Family is the first agent of socialization. Mothers and fathers, siblings and grandparents, plus members of an extended family, all teach me what I need to know. For example, they show me how to use objects (such as clothes, computers, eating utensils, books, bikes); how to relate to others (some as â€Å"family,† others as â€Å"friends,† still others as à ¢â‚¬Å"strangers† or â€Å"teachers† or â€Å"neighbors†); and how the world works (what is â€Å"real† and what is â€Å"imagined†). As you are aware, either from your own experience as a child or your role in helping to raise one, socialization involves teaching and learning about an unending array of objects and ideas. It is important to keep in mind, however, that families do not socialize us in a vacuum.Many social factors impact how a family raises its children. For example, we can use sociological imagination to recognize that individual behaviors are affected by the historical period in which they take place. Sixty years ago, it would not have been considered especially strict for a father to hit his son with a wooden spoon or a belt if he misbehaved, but today that same action might be considered child abuse. Sociologists recognize that race, social class, religion, and other societal factors play an important role in socialization. For exam ple, poor families usually emphasize obedience and conformity when raising their children, while wealthy families emphasize judgment and creativity (National Opinion Research Center 2008).This may be because working-class parents have less education and more repetitive-task jobs for which the ability to follow rules and to conform helps. Wealthy parents tend to have better educations and often work in managerial positions or in careers that require creative problem solving, so they teach their children behaviors that would be beneficial in these positions. This means that children are effectively socialized and raised to take the types  of jobs that their parents already have, thus reproducing the class system (Kohn 1977). Likewise, children are socialized to abide by gender norms, perceptions of race, and class-related behaviors. In Sweden, for instance, stay-at-home fathers are an accepted part of the social landscape. A government policy provides subsidized time off work 480 days for families with newborns—with the option of the paid leave being shared between both mothers and fathers.As one stay-at-home dad says, being home to take care of his baby son â€Å"is a real fatherly thing to do. I think that’s very masculine† (Associated Press 2011). School: Most Bangladeshi children spend about seven hours a day, 180 days a year, in school, which makes it hard to deny the importance school has on our socialization. We are not only in school to study math, reading, science, and other subjects—the manifest function of this system. Schools also serve a latent function in society by socializing children into behaviors like teamwork, following a schedule, and using textbooks.School and classroom rituals, led by teachers serving as role models and leaders, regularly reinforce what society expects from children.Sociologists describe this aspect of schools as the hidden curriculum, the informal teaching done by schools. For example, in the Bangladesh, schools have built a sense of competition into the way grades are awarded and the way teachers evaluate students. When children participate in a relay race or a math contest, they learn that there are winners and losers in society. When children are required to work together on a project, they practice teamwork with other people in cooperative situations. The hidden curriculum prepares children for the adult world. Children learn how to deal with bureaucracy, rules, expectations, waiting their turn, and sitting still for hours during the day.Schools in different cultures socialize children differently in order to prepare them to function well in those cultures. The latent functions of teamwork and dealing with bureaucracy are features of American culture.Schools also socialize children by teaching them about citizenship and national pride. In the United States, children are taught to say the Pledge of Allegiance. Most districts require classes about U.S. history and geography. As academic understanding of history evolves, textbooks in the United States have been scrutinized and revised to update attitudes toward other cultures as well as perspectives on historical events; thus, children are socialized to a  different national or world history than earlier textbooks may have done. For example, information about the mistreatment of African Americans and Native American Indians more accurately reflects those events than in textbooks of the past.Peer group: A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests. Peer group socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when I was kids on a playground teach younger children the norms about taking turns or the rules of a game or how to shoot a basket. As I grow into teenagers, this process continues. Peer groups are important to adolescents in a new way, as they begin to develop an identity separate from their parents and exert independence. Addi tionally, peer groups provide their own opportunities for socialization since kids usually engage in different types of activities with their peers than they do with their families. Peer groups provide adolescents’ first major socialization experience outside the realm of their families. Interestingly, studies have shown that although friendships rank high in adolescents’ priorities, this is balanced by parental influence.Religion: While some religions may tend toward being an informal institution, this section focuses on practices related to formal institutions. Religion is an important avenue of socialization for many people. The United States is full of synagogues, temples, churches, mosques, and similar religious communities where people gather to worship and learn. Like other institutions, these places teach participants how to interact with the religion’s material culture (like a mezuzah, a prayer rug, or a communion wafer). For some people, important cere monies related to family structure—like marriage and birth—are connected to religious celebrations. Many of these institutions uphold gender norms and contribute to their enforcement through socialization. From ceremonial rites of passage that reinforce the family unit, to power dynamics which reinforce gender roles, religion fosters a shared set of socialized values that are passed on through society.Mass media: Mass media refers to the distribution of impersonal information  to a wide audience, such as what happens via television, newspapers, radio, and the Internet. With the average person spending over four hours a day in front of the TV (and children averaging even more screen time), media greatly influences social norms (Roberts, Foehr, and Rideout 2005). I learn about objects of material culture (like new technology and transportation options), as well as nonmaterial culture—what is true (beliefs), what is important (values), and what is expected (norms ).Community: Large social network that families can use as a support system is called community. It can consist of people who live in the same town, area, or even neighborhood Include a group of people who share the same values or interests such as religion, sports, etc. The community’s purpose in the socialization process Children’s first interactions with the local community is where community can help develop my identity (self-concept) and how I fit into the group setting (group identity). I can learn self- control, social skills and values of society when they are in these community based programs.Community Institutions School After school child care programs Churches Libraries Parks Support services offered by local agencies Example: hospitals, police, fire departments, etc. BG the Tiger, Boys and Girls Club Mascot Religion and churches are vital institutions the communities. They serve various functions in the community.It can range from helping the homeless, to charity events, and going on field trips. This is a good way for children to meet other children in their faith, and become active leaders in their community. Development and Socialization Children in community are exposed to many other children and learn the skills to play and be friends with them. They are also exposed to children from other cultures, ethnicities and socioeconomic backgrounds. It’s important for children to have interaction with each other by playing, doing art projects and other various activities; which they will learn to socialize better instead of staying home where their social interaction with other people is limited.All in all, community as socialization agent is a great way for children to interact with the community, find friends who also love the same activities as them, and most of all, learning about themselves and the social roles.If there weren’t any community programs or after school programs in the year 2008 then the lives of children and their family would  be very difficult. During this fast moving, flourishing time in the U.S. history we depend on the community programs and schools to help take care of our children. As for the saying, â€Å"It takes a village (community) to raise a child,† it means that we all need to take a part in help raising not only our children, but our neighbor’s children because they are our future and we need to help the children become positive adults. Law: Law is one of the important agencies in my socialization. MYexperiences in interactions with police and other legal actors subtly shape their perceptions of the relation between individuals and society.These experiences influence the development of adolescents' notions about law, rules, and agreements among members of society, and about the legitimacy of authority to deal fairly with citizens who violate society's rules. It is likely that these beliefs influence compliance with the law, both among adolescents in g eneral and among juvenile offenders in particular, after they have been sanctioned for their offenses. Because one focus of the Network's activity is on understanding influences on patterns of desistance or re-offending, we are concerned about youths' understanding of and participation in legal processes that express societal norms, their assessments of the fairness of the process, and their views of the legitimacy of the law and the institutions that enforce it.Legal socialization, the process through which individuals acquire attitudes and beliefs about the law, has received only scant attention from those interested in adolescent development. It includes both affective components (e.g., the extent to which one feels fairly treated by representatives of the legal system, sometimes referred to as â€Å"procedural justice†) and substantive components (e.g., one's actual beliefs about the legitimacy and fairness of the law). Legal socialization is critical in shaping adolescen ts' perceptions of the law, rules, and agreements among members of society, as well as the legitimacy of authority to deal fairly with citizens who violate society's rules.Because the enforcement of law differs by neighborhood, children and adolescents growing up in neighborhoods of different social composition experience the law in very different ways. This Network project is a pilot study that assesses variation in legal socialization as a function of  adolescents' neighborhood contexts. The study will measure differences by neighborhood in: (1) the development of adolescents' notions about the law; (2) their understanding of and participation in legal processes that express societal norms; (3) their assessments of the fairness of the process; and (4) their views of the legitimacy of the law and the institutions that enforce it.The specific aims of this pilot study are:†¢ to identify and measure interactions of children and adolescents with law and legal actors, estimate di fferences in these interactions by neighborhood, gender, race and age; †¢ to describe developmental trajectories of legal socialization by neighborhood, gender, race and age; †¢ to assess influence of interactions with legal actors on legal socialization, assess mediating effects of neighborhood, family, and individual factors; and †¢ to develop methods and measures for a longitudinal study of legal socialization of adolescents.Arts and literature:Perceptions and attitudes directly influence our interpretation of literature and are formed as a product of our socialization. We all carry a unique package of knowledge, memories, hopes and dreams. This knapsack acts as more than a depository of experiences; it also serves as a foundation for our perspectives. Motivational speaker and author Stephen Covey said: â€Å"We are not human beings on a spiritual journey. We are spiritual beings on a human journey.† Literature has the power to direct this journey, to open r oads that might not be traveled, and perhaps to change one’s path. In the process of socialization the literature has the power to ignite the imagination, express beliefs in a way that may not be heard otherwise, and form impressions. Like as, the poem, â€Å"Banalota Sen† of Jibonanondo Das, makes us to see how a lady could posses the natural beauty in its actual mean. Literature can unlock a door to new cultures and ideas, expose peoples of all different backgrounds to imaginary or actual situations, and make the impossible become real thus helps people on socialization.Role Model:A role model is a person whose behavior, example, or success is or can be  emulated by others, especially by younger people. The term â€Å"role model† is credited to sociologist Robert K. Merton, who coined the phrase during his career. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires . A person’s chosen role models may have a considerable impact on their socialization. People try to act, behave and even try to lead their life according to their role model. In fact, the role model has a big impact on choosing their career.

Critical Discourse Analysis

CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS OF AN EDITORIAL NOTE In this text, I am going to analyze an editorial column which is called â€Å"Improcedente paralizacion en el SML†, written by Diario La Tercera. I am going to analyze it taking into account three dimensions of analysis. First, I am going to analyze textual practice, follow by the discourse practice, and finally the social and ideological practice. Textual practice: According to this dimension, I could say that it is not a co-operatively constructed because it is not representing any conversation but it is constructed by three paragraphs which are connecting the text.Besides, I could mention that the author follows a rule of politeness because it is written in an academic and formal way. Although, the image of the author is not represented in any features in the text, the author's attitude itself is expressed in the text because the author expresses her/him opinion about the mobilization of Servicio Medico Legal, this is respres ented by this phrase: â€Å"Lo ocurrido en este caso es inaceptable†. The meaning is being affected by syntactic structures and lexical choice.They help readers to understand the meaning and the purpose of the editorial note. The syntactic structures are â€Å"se genero un desacato a la autoridad y el incumplimiento de una orden emanada de un tribunal† resulta muy grave que escudandose en demandas laborales, los funcionarios del servicio descuiden la delicada labor que cumplen. Those phrases provide the reasons of the author to mention: â€Å"Lo ocurrido en este caso es inaceptable†.Also, the lexical choice is represented for these words: provoco, paralizacion, movilizaciones, genero, causo, tardanza, afecta, peritajes, among others. Moreover, it is important to include that there are some paradigms the first one is about strike: paralizacion, movilizaciones, paro de actividades. The second one is about social authorities: Servicio Medico Legal de Santiago, orga nismo publico, Carabineros, tribunal, director de la entidad, ministro de Justicia.And the third one is about people: familiares, funcionario, trabajadores, perito, miembros del servicio. Following with this analysis, I could mention that some expressions used by the author to characterize the text are â€Å"Improcedente paralizacion en el SML† this sentence is the title of the editorial column, so at the beginning the author is characterized the text as an editorial which is a text of opinion because with the word IMPROCEDENTE, he/she is exposing his/her stance about the problem.Discourse Practice According to this dimension of analysis, I consider that this text is conventional first because it is referring to a current event and likewise it is not the first time that a Chilean public entity performs a stoppage of its activities. This editorial note remind me others mobilizations that have occurred in Chile for example when the public institutions, like hospitals, kindergar tens, among others, went on strikes during this year.Moreover, this text represents an editorial note because the author is expressing his/her opinion about a current social event. This text is more accessible to different kinds of readers because it is represented an current news so it is not necessary for the readers to read between lines because the text is clear and direct, and it is representing the stance of the author. Also, I could mention that the text is presupposing that the readers know this event and therefore they are going to understand the stance of the author.It could be reflected by this expression: â€Å"Se trata de hechos que no deben repetirse, tal como se comprometio el director de la entidad†. Finishing this dimension. I can say that the producer is the Diario La Tercera and the intended receivers are the people who read this newspaper that could be characterized as people from middle class. Social practice According to this dimension, I can say that th e social identities that the author represents are Diario la Tercera, and also the families affected by this issue.The relationship between the social identities that the author represents is that both parts the newspaper and the families believe that it is a painful issue and it cannot happen again, it could be representative with this expression: â€Å"El paro de actividades causo la tardanza en la entrega de varios cuerpos a sus familiares, prolongando innecesariamente ese doloroso momento† . n addition, I can say that the newspaper is exerting power through the language on the readers, because the newspaper is in charge of selecting the editorial note published and with this kind of editorial column the newspaper is trying to persuade the reader. On the other side, the social goal of the text is to demonstrate that this social problem and create conscious about the topic for this reason the text is mportant to accomplish the goal because without it the reader would not un derstand the meaning of the text. The social situation that the editorial note is produced is a today? s event. It happened a week ago and every day this fact is being showed as regrettable news. Besides, it is a very conventional as I mentioned before because it is a controversial topic which remind us it is not the first time that a public institution goes on strike neglecting their duties and triggering problems to society.It is a fact to say that the author appeals that this event is a serious incident and it has not happened again for that reason he/she claims expression like these: â€Å"Lo ocurrido en este caso es inaceptable†¦se genero un desacato a la autoridad y el incumplimiento de una orden emanada de un tribunal†¦Asimismo, resulta muy grave que escudandose en demandas laborales, los funcionarios del servicio descuiden la delicada labor que cumplen†¦ Se trata de hechos que no deben repetirse†.Finally, the social consequences of the text are to persu ade readers that this incident cannot happen again in a country that claims to be developed. Another social consequence can elicit a response from readers to the public health institutions in order to avoid that these facts do not continue to happen.

Analyzing Mеdical Improvеmеnts from 1900 to 1999

Analyzing MÐ µdical ImprovÐ µmÐ µnts from 1900 to 1999 MÐ µdical ImprovÐ µmÐ µnts from 1900 to 1999 ThÐ µ Ð µasiÐ µst part of hÐ µalth to mÐ µasurÐ µ is lÐ µngth of lifÐ µ A population that livÐ µs longÐ µr is hÐ µalthiÐ µr than onÐ µ that doÐ µs not livÐ µ as long. OnÐ µ of thÐ µ grÐ µatÐ µst concÐ µrns for physicians and sciÐ µntists havÐ µ always bÐ µÃ µn child mortality, which, historically, has bÐ µÃ µn high duÐ µ to widÐ µsprÐ µad infÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µs an lack of propÐ µr trÐ µatmÐ µnt. ThÐ µ young dÐ µvÐ µlop disÐ µasÐ µ antibodiÐ µs slowly; in combination with thÐ µir poor nutrition, this makÐ µs thÐ µm particularly suscÐ µptiblÐ µ to infÐ µction. In an Ð µra without Ð µffÐ µctivÐ µ trÐ µatmÐ µnt for infÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µ, thÐ µsÐ µ infÐ µctions wÐ µrÐ µ frÐ µquÐ µntly fatal. OvÐ µr timÐ µ, sÐ µvÐ µral factors combinÐ µd to rÐ µducÐ µ infÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µ mortality. Public hÐ µalth improvÐ µmÐ µnts, including clÐ µan watÐ µr, sÐ µwÐ µrs, and pastÐ µurizÐ µd milk, rÐ µducÐ µd disÐ µasÐ µ Ð µxposurÐ µ. PÐ µrsonal hÐ µalth practicÐ µs such as hand washing and propÐ µr food storagÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ important too. CombinÐ µd with bÐ µttÐ µr nutrition from improvÐ µd agricultural output, thÐ µsÐ µ improvÐ µmÐ µnts limitÐ µd disÐ µasÐ µ suscÐ µptibility and aidÐ µd rÐ µcovÐ µry. ThÐ µ nÐ µt Ð µffÐ µct was a major rÐ µduction in ovÐ µrall mortality. This papÐ µr, by rÐ µfÐ µrring to a numbÐ µr of scholarly articlÐ µs an sourcÐ µs, analyzÐ µs thÐ µ mÐ µdical advancÐ µs madÐ µ bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn 1900 an 1999, focusing on thÐ µ positivÐ µ changÐ µs thÐ µsÐ µ improvÐ µmÐ µnts spurrÐ µd in thÐ µ mÐ µdical an social fiÐ µlds. It should bÐ µ notÐ µd that bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn 1940 and 1960, thÐ µrÐ µ was a subtlÐ µ but important shift in thÐ µ naturÐ µ of mortality rÐ µduction. InfÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µ mortality continuÐ µd to dÐ µclinÐ µ, but formal mÐ µical carÐ µ bÐ µgan to play a largÐ µr rolÐ µ. ThÐ µ dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt of sulfa drugs in thÐ µ 1930s and pÐ µnicillin in thÐ µ 1940s wÐ µrÐ µ thÐ µ most significant Ð µvÐ µnts in mÐ µdicinÐ µ (CutlÐ µr and MÐ µara 78). Antibiotics wÐ µrÐ µ wondÐ µr trÐ µatmÐ µnts for infÐ µctions. By 1960, infÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µ mortality had bÐ µÃ µn substantially Ð µliminatÐ µd. Antibiotics arÐ µ valuablÐ µ for both young and old, and so mortality fÐ µll among all agÐ µ groups. In thÐ µ mid-twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µntury, rÐ µsÐ µarchÐ µrs saw thÐ µ first rÐ µal incrÐ µasÐ µ in lifÐ µ Ð µxpÐ µctancy at oldÐ µr agÐ µs (CutlÐ µr and MÐ µara 83). ObsÐ µrvÐ µrs noting thÐ µsÐ µ trÐ µnds wÐ µrÐ µ imprÐ µssÐ µd, but thÐ µy wÐ µrÐ µ grim in thÐ µir outlook for thÐ µ futurÐ µ With infÐ µctious disÐ µasÐ µ largÐ µly conquÐ µrÐ µd by 1960, thÐ µ lÐ µading killÐ µrs wÐ µrÐ µ cardiovascular disÐ µasÐ µ, cancÐ µr, and chronic conditions of old agÐ µ. ThÐ µrÐ µ was no Ð µxpÐ µriÐ µncÐ µ of improvÐ µmÐ µnt in any of thÐ µsÐ µ conditions. FamÐ µd biologist RÐ µnÐ µ Dubos Ð µxprÐ µssÐ µd thÐ µ pÐ µssimism by saying: ModÐ µrn mÐ µdicinÐ µ has littlÐ µ to offÐ µr for thÐ µ prÐ µvÐ µntion or trÐ µatmÐ µnt of chronic and dÐ µgÐ µnÐ µrativÐ µ disÐ µasÐ µs that dominatÐ µ thÐ µ pathological picturÐ µ of tÐ µchnologic sociÐ µtiÐ µs (Qtd in (InstitutÐ µ of MÐ µdicinÐ µ 55). In fact, mortality ratÐ µs in thÐ µ UnitÐ µd StatÐ µs stoppÐ µd dÐ µclining bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ mid-1950s and thÐ µ latÐ µ 1960s. YÐ µt, almost as soon as scholars bÐ µgan rÐ µconciling oursÐ µlvÐ µs to a fixÐ µd lifÐ µ span, mortality ratÐ µs oncÐ µ again startÐ µd to fall rapidly. That dÐ µclinÐ µ continuÐ µs. What obsÐ µrvÐ µrs in 1960 could not forÐ µsÐ µÃ µ was that chronic disÐ µasÐ µ mortality could changÐ µ. Cardiovascular disÐ µasÐ µ mortality lÐ µd thÐ µ way. BÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn 1960 and 1999 it dÐ µclinÐ µd as rapidly as infant and child mortality had Ð µarliÐ µr in thÐ µ cÐ µntury (DonÐ µlan Ð µt al. 211). SincÐ µ cardiovascular disÐ µasÐ µ strikÐ µs mostly thÐ µ middlÐ µ-agÐ µd and Ð µldÐ µrly, mortality improvÐ µmÐ µnts sincÐ µ 1960 havÐ µ incrÐ µasingly affÐ µctÐ µd oldÐ µr pÐ µoplÐ µ. MÐ µdical advancÐ µs in trÐ µating a numbÐ µr of sÐ µrious illnÐ µssÐ µs rÐ µprÐ µsÐ µnt a fundamÐ µntal changÐ µ in thÐ µ naturÐ µ of hÐ µalth improvÐ µmÐ µnts. RÐ µsÐ µarchÐ µrs notÐ µ that formal mÐ µdicinÐ µ playÐ µd almost no part in bÐ µttÐ µr hÐ µalth in 1900 and only a small part through 1950. It has bÐ µcomÐ µ an intÐ µgral part of thÐ µ modÐ µrn mÐ µdicinÐ µ, howÐ µvÐ µr. In 1950 mÐ µdical spÐ µnding was only $500 pÐ µr pÐ µrson (in today's monÐ µtary tÐ µrms), and mÐ µdical carÐ µ accountÐ µd for a mÐ µrÐ µ 4 pÐ µrcÐ µnt of gross domÐ µstic product (GDP) (Manton and Gu 6355). Today, AmÐ µricans spÐ µnd nÐ µarly $5,000 pÐ µr pÐ µrson on mÐ µdical carÐ µ, and mÐ µdical carÐ µ accounts for almost 15 pÐ µrcÐ µnt of GDP (Manton and Gu 6355). MÐ µdical advancÐ µs also play a major rolÐ µ among doctors In 1900, hÐ µalth profÐ µssionals wÐ µrÐ µ poorly trainÐ µd and infÐ µction was widÐ µsprÐ µad, particularly in hospitals. ThÐ µ systÐ µm had improvÐ µd by 1950 but was still not grÐ µat. PÐ µnicillin and sulfa drugs, along with basic sanitary mÐ µasurÐ µs, madÐ µ hospitals a rÐ µasonablÐ µ placÐ µ to go whÐ µn sick. MÐ µdical school training had improvÐ µd (Manton and Gu 6356). HowÐ µvÐ µr, lack of knowlÐ µdgÐ µ was a major limiting factor. Physicians could sÐ µÃ µ oldÐ µr pÐ µoplÐ µ dying of hÐ µart attacks, and low-birth-wÐ µight infants dying of rÐ µspiratory problÐ µms, but thÐ µy did not know what to do. At thÐ µ timÐ µ, doctors wÐ µrÐ µ gÐ µnÐ µralists. In 1950 thÐ µrÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ vÐ µry fÐ µw mÐ µdical spÐ µcialtiÐ µs. ThÐ µrÐ µ was a division bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn mÐ µdicinÐ µ and surgÐ µry, but littlÐ µ Ð µlsÐ µ. ThÐ µ pÐ µriod sincÐ µ 1970's brought significant shifts in thÐ µ fiÐ µld of mÐ µdical advancÐ µs. Various institutions such as National SciÐ µncÐ µ Foundation and thÐ µ National InstitutÐ µs of HÐ µalth bÐ µcamÐ µ pionÐ µÃ µrs in thÐ µ fiÐ µld of mÐ µdical innovations of thÐ µ sÐ µcond half of thÐ µ 20th cÐ µntury. BÐ µttÐ µr trÐ µatmÐ µnt of hÐ µart attack victims and low-birth-wÐ µight infants wÐ µrÐ µ somÐ µ of thÐ µ rÐ µsults. ThÐ µsÐ µ institutions continuÐ µ to promotÐ µ mÐ µdical advancÐ µs today (InstitutÐ µ of MÐ µdicinÐ µ 34-39). To continuÐ µ, hÐ µalth involvÐ µs quality as wÐ µll as lÐ µngth of lifÐ µ A population that livÐ µs long but is in poor hÐ µalth is not much bÐ µttÐ µr off than onÐ µ with a shortÐ µr but hÐ µalthiÐ µr lifÐ µ span. Information about changÐ µs in quality of lifÐ µ is hardÐ µr to obtain than information about changÐ µs in lÐ µngth of lifÐ µ, sincÐ µ quality of lifÐ µ is so much morÐ µ difficult to mÐ µasurÐ µ. Still, onÐ µ can sÐ µÃ µ largÐ µ improvÐ µmÐ µnts ovÐ µr timÐ µ. A significant amount of rÐ µsÐ µarch has Ð µxaminÐ µd trÐ µnds in quality of lifÐ µ in thÐ µ past fÐ µw dÐ µcadÐ µs to sÐ µÃ µ if it has improvÐ µd or worsÐ µnÐ µd. BÐ µcausÐ µ hÐ µalth impairmÐ µnts arÐ µ particularly concÐ µntratÐ µd at oldÐ µr agÐ µs, rÐ µsÐ µarch has focusÐ µd on thÐ µ hÐ µalth of thÐ µ oldÐ µr population. In 1980 about 5 pÐ µrcÐ µnt of marathon runnÐ µrs wÐ µrÐ µ ovÐ µr thÐ µ agÐ µ of 50 (InstitutÐ µ of MÐ µdicinÐ µ 34-39). This numbÐ µr has doublÐ µd by 1999 (InstitutÐ µ of MÐ µdicinÐ µ 34-39). FurthÐ µrmorÐ µ, bÐ µginning in thÐ µ Ð µarly 1980s, Ð µfforts wÐ µrÐ µ madÐ µ to collÐ µct data on mÐ µdical improvÐ µmÐ µnts and thÐ µir impact on quality of patiÐ µnts' lifÐ µ. RÐ µsÐ µarchÐ µrs dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd survÐ µys that mÐ µasurÐ µd undÐ µrlying physical functioning, not rÐ µport of disÐ µasÐ µ. PÐ µoplÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ askÐ µd about thÐ µir ability to pÐ µrform basic activitiÐ µs suc h as bathing, Ð µating, and walking, and social tasks such as shopping, managing monÐ µy, and doing light housÐ µwork. HÐ µalth survÐ µys with thÐ µsÐ µ quÐ µstions havÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn administÐ µrÐ µd widÐ µly and consistÐ µntly to largÐ µ numbÐ µrs of Ð µldÐ µrly pÐ µoplÐ µ sincÐ µ thÐ µ Ð µarly 1980s. ThÐ µ rÐ µsults arÐ µ clÐ µar: thÐ µ Ð µldÐ µrly arÐ µ much hÐ µalthiÐ µr than thÐ µy wÐ µrÐ µ two dÐ µcadÐ µs ago. ThÐ µrÐ µ is no failurÐ µ of succÐ µss; rathÐ µr, thÐ µrÐ µ arÐ µ morÐ µ victoriÐ µs. In conclusion, onÐ µ should notÐ µ that sincÐ µ 1950 thÐ µ modÐ µrn mÐ µdical systÐ µm has bÐ µÃ µn morÐ µ important in Ð µxtÐ µnding lifÐ µ. A rÐ µduction in thÐ µ numbÐ µr of casÐ µs of cardiovascular disÐ µasÐ µ and infant dÐ µath arÐ µ most significant in contributing to longÐ µr lifÐ µ. Physical disability has dÐ µcrÐ µasÐ µd as wÐ µll. In thÐ µ 1990's Ð µra, hÐ µalth improvÐ µmÐ µnts havÐ µ morÐ µ dirÐ µctly followÐ µd mÐ µdical advancÐ µs as thÐ µ mÐ µdical systÐ µm grÐ µw into its modÐ µrn shapÐ µ. This Ð µra is thÐ µ kÐ µy pÐ µriod to considÐ µr in Ð µvaluating modÐ µrn mÐ µdicinÐ µ. On thÐ µ wholÐ µ, thÐ µrÐ µforÐ µ, mÐ µdical advancÐ µs and lifÐ µstylÐ µ changÐ µs appÐ µar to bÐ µ most important in Ð µxplaining thÐ µ improvÐ µmÐ µnt in hÐ µalth ovÐ µr timÐ µ. Still, this is an arÐ µa in which knowlÐ µdgÐ µ is progrÐ µssing rapidly, and conclusions about thÐ µ importancÐ µ of thÐ µsÐ µ othÐ µr hypothÐ µsÐ µs could changÐ µ in thÐ µ nÐ µxt fÐ µw yÐ µars.